My Best Friend Essay

My best friends name is Brittney Lewis. We have been friends since the ninth grade. We have a few things in common, but we’re mostly best friends because opposites attract. Brittney and I met in a Physical Science class we had together. At first we didn’t talk very much if at all, but after a while we grew on each other and stated hanging out together. Since then we have remained friends and since shared many things together like good laughs, jobs, and even some times that weren’t so good for both of us. Mostly, I’m just happy to be able to have such a great friend like her. Like I said before, Brittney and I met in a Physical Science class that we had. That class contained an abnormal group of people. There were a lot of those student types that didn’t care about school, much less class and then there were those that were class clowns who always thought they should have a minute or two to enlighten us with a joke everyday. As you can see this class was pretty out of control and there wasn’t any way to cool us down. Brittney and I sat next to each other all the time and would sit back and watch as the rest of the people in the class made fools of themselves while receiving referrals to the principal. We always laughed and played around in that class and it made us closer as friends; seeing as how we were the only two normal ones there we sort of became really good friends. Don’t get me wrong there have been many other times that she and I spent laughing our â€Å"asses† off, if not at other people or things then at us. Many of our laughs come from when we started working together at Dunkin Donuts/Baskin Robbins. Boy, we sure have a lot of bonding memories at that job. We absolutely hated working at that dump and would strongly suggest that no one apply to work there. It all started off when I got hired in the 10th grade and Brittney and I were in History together when I told her. She immediately asked if I could get her hired and I told her I supposed I could help her since she sounded so desperate when she asked. After a few days after I mentioned to my boss that a friend of mine was seeking employment and wanted to join our staff he told me to call her and tell her she was hired. She was thrilled that I had gotten her the job. The both of us were not so thrilled to find  out what our job was going to be like. Soon after working there for a little over a year Brittney and I realized we didn’t have to slave for minimum wage when many of our friends had clean jobs and were getting paid way more than either of us. So, we decided to throw in the towel and quit. It wasn’t long until Brittney and I landed a job together getting paid way more and staying clean at a shoe and apparel store called The Underground Station. We loved our job. It was just another thing that brought the two of us even closer. Read more:  Friends in Need are Friends Indeed Some of the closest people to you, like your mom, dad, uncle, grandparents will tell you what don’t kill you will only make you stronger. During Brittney’s and my last year and a half in Savannah, before moving here, we both hit some bumpy areas in the road. At this point Brittney and I had been really good friends for about three years. Brittney was sixteen years old and I was still fifteen, about to turn sixteen. Now, sometimes, young folks, like me, get spur of the moment ideas and run with them. The idea was to get a tattoo. I knew my mom would be devastated if she found out, but I wasn’t thinking about her. Brittney already had a tattoo and wanted another one. I didn’t have any and wanted one. Together we made an appointment to go see â€Å"P†, our local tattoo artist for under age kids wanting some permanent body art. In less than thirty minutes I had deceived my mom and still knew she would be crushed if she knew what I had done. Well, eventually, my mom found out and killed me, like I knew she would. She was so heated she told me to get out of her house. Not having anywhere else to go I went to Brittney’s house where she and her mother comforted me for the next four days. My mom loves me dearly, but was very upset with me and needed some time to cool off. Like me, Brittney has been the typical teenager as well, only her â€Å"oops† was a baby; not a mistake, but a blessing, Brittney got pregnant at the end of our senior year in high school. I was there 100 percent to help her deal and prepare for what was soon to come. Brittney and I have been through so many circumstances together; some good and some bad. Together we have grown as both people and friends. Even today we remain best friends. Through all of our laughs, silly jobs,  and bad times we’ve never had a fall out or been upset with each other for anything we couldn’t get over in five minutes. Although my mom has since moved from Savannah, Brittney and her mother still go visit her in her new home and my mom still visits them as well. I couldn’t ask for a better friend to have to be there for me when I need it the most or to just call up when I’m bored. Brittney and I will remain best friends for a long time and so will our families.

On Compassion

Annotated Bibliography â€Å"On Compassion† Ascher, Barbara. â€Å"On Compassion†. 5O Essays. Ed. Samuel Cohen. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2004. 35-38. Print. Barbara Ascher’s essay offers examples of everyday life in New York City to support her thoughts about compassion. She uses two different encounters to back up her arguments and points. The first encounter involved a woman, with a child, giving money to a homeless person as he starred at the precious child. Ascher questioned as to why the woman gave to the homeless. Was it fear or compassion that motivated the gift?The second encounter involved a homeless person coming into a cafe, smelling of cigarettes and urine and the owner rushing to hand the man a coffee and a bag of food. Twice Ascher has witnessed this and one argument made was, what compelled the woman to feed the man? Was it because of pity? Care? Compassion? As winter comes the mayor kicks all the homeless of the streets and into Bellevue Hosp ital. Ascher thinks that what the mayor is doing shows compassion, but another side of her fears it is because of â€Å"raw humanity offending our sensibilities†(38).She uses interesting words to basically describe how people don’t like to face reality and see how life really is. People just walk past the homeless, pretend nothing is wrong and life is perfect; forgetting about the other humans in rags, starving, and living day to day on the street and in parks. For most it wasn’t a lifestyle chosen, yet people only see what is right in front of their eyes; â€Å"An awareness of rags with voices that make no sense and scream in inarticulate rage†(38). Ascher believes and states that, â€Å"Compassion is not a character trait like sunny disposition.It must be learned, and it is learned by having adversity at our windows, coming through the gates of our yards, the walls of our towns, adversity that becomes so familiar that we begin to identify and empathize with it. †(38) Ascher then, compares the homeless to the Ancient Greeks, reminding us of our common humanity. In my opinion, I believe that the point of this essay was to speak to people through writing. Ascher made very good points about her beliefs on compassion. For example, how she believes compassion is learned and not just a character trait. I for one agree with her.Being compassionate is not something that you should describe yourself as, but more so an action of doing or giving without second-guessing, or thinking of it. It’s something you pick up as a child in your home and community and it grows on you, it becomes part of your identity. In Ascher’s essay she gets her point across with plenty of arguments to back it up. She uses encounters from everyday life so readers can see and understand where she is coming from. Ascher made me change how I see and think about compassion. That’s why she is such a great writer because the execution of her work is just excellent.

Criticisms Against Ethical Theories

Criticisms leveled against Ethical Theories 1. Criticisms leveled against Consequentialism. Consequentialism is based on the consequences of actions. It is sometimes called a teleological theory, from the Greek word telos, meaning goal. According to consequentialism, actions are right or wrong depending on whether their consequences further the goal. The goal (or, â€Å"the good†) can be something like the happiness of all people or the spreading of peace and safety. Anything which contributes to that goal is right and anything which does not is wrong. Actions are thought to have no moral value in themselves (no rightness or wrongness), but only get moral value from whether or not they lead to the goal. John Stuart Mill was a famous consequentialist. Consequentialists would say that killing people is not right or wrong in itself, it depends on the outcome. Killing an innocent child would be a bad thing because it would decrease the happiness of its family and have no good results. Killing a terrorist would be a good thing because, although it would upset his family, it would make people safer. The main criticism of consequentialism is that it would allow any action in pursuit of a good cause, even actions that most people would say were clearly morally wrong, such as torture, killing children, genocide, etc. 2. Criticisms leveled against Deontology The word deontology comes from the Greek word deon, meaning duty. According to this theory, it is your duty to do actions which are right and not do those which are wrong. Actions are thought to be right or wrong in themselves. For example, killing people and lying are wrong, sharing with others who are in need is right. Immanuel Kant was a famous deontologist. E. g. While trekking in the Andes you come across a guerilla leader who has captured 20 local villagers. The guerilla says if you will shoot one hostage he will let the other 19 go free. If you refuse to shoot, he will kill all 20. In the thought experiment the guerilla leader is telling the truth and you have only two choices: to shoot, or to refuse. Choose to shoot, and you are a consequentialist, motivated by saving the 19 innocent people. Choose to refuse, and you are a deontologist, motivated by the fact that it is always wrong to kill an innocent person. The main criticism of deontology is that it is selfish, a way of avoiding getting your hands dirty (in a moral sense) while still allowing terrible things to happen. For instance, in the thought experiment you would not have shot anybody but 20 innocent people would still die. You could have prevented this outcome if you weren't afraid to take any guilt on yourself. 3. Criticisms of Utilitarianism †¢ Distastefulness By far and and away the most common criticism of utilitarianism can be reduced simply to: â€Å"I don't like it† or â€Å"It doesn't suit my way of thinking†. For an example of this, here's something from someone who might prefer to remain nameless. â€Å"Producing the greatest good for the greatest number is fine as long as you are not hurting someone you really love in the process. For instance, with the trolley situation, I would rather kill 5 people on the main track than my mother on the spur track. Utilitarianism runs into problems when sentiment is involved!! â€Å" Utilitarianism is alleged to be faulty in the way it requires us to think about all kinds of actions – to apply the felicific calculus in disregard to any feared distaste of the result. For example, some issues or potential actions are (to a non-utilitarian) â€Å"morally unthinkable†: Utilitarianism does indeed have something to say on this issue – otherwise it would suggest that the life of this extra individual was of no importance. I suggest it as a virtue of utility, that it does not arbitrarily discount value depending on some detail of the situation: all interests count – imply and fairly. The fact that opponents of utilitarianism admit that they won't even consider some situations seems to me to be most damning to their credibility, and indicative of their general irrationality on matters ethical. The argument from distaste is often expressed as a suggestion that utilitarianism doesn't provide enough support for individuals' rights. But what is a r ight, and what is its justification? If the justification of a right depends on its tendency to promote happiness and prevent suffering, then it is entirely redundant since this is the sole purpose of utility. And if rights aren't justified in these terms, how are they justified – what on earth are they actually good for? Of what use are they? It is generally found that the proponent of ethical rights has very unclear thinking as to what rights are and why they (should) exist – and it is therefore of unclear importance that utilitarianism does not support them. Doesn't utilitarianism imply that, if we found a drug which had the sole effect of producing happiness, we ought to mass produce and consume it? And, since happiness is just an emotion which can be chemically induced, isn't it a bit silly to make it the highest order objective? It is quite strange that many people will accept â€Å"the pursuit of happiness† as one of life's fundamental entitlements, yet should suddenly develop ascetic inclinations as soon as the quarry appears obtainable. It seems they don't have a problem with someone trying to achieve happiness, rather they are only concerned when that someone has a reasonable prospect of success in their attempts. Perhaps their fixation with unhappiness would be satisfied by personally abstaining from joy – but, if it goes further such that they would attempt to prevent individuals from attaining happiness even at no cost to others, then (from a utilitarian point of view) such people are despotical and a menace to society. It is possible that many people's aversion to the idea of everlasting happiness is caused by incomplete consideration of the issue. It could be that people have become so jaded by mistaken claims for the desirability of various intentional objects that they believe that drug-induced happiness simply would not be durably satisfying. Since any notion of happiness worthy of the name includes that of satisfaction, it follows that a truly happy person cannot be dissatisfied, so this problem can never arise. Happiness, in the utilitarian sense, includes the exemption from suffering. A charge of triviality for pleasure can perhaps be made, if our only frame of reference is the knowledge of felicific states currently achievable, but it is altogether less plausible against the depths of suffering currently experienced by the world's less fortunate beings. †¢ Impossibility The second most common criticism of utilitarianism is that it is impossible to apply – that happiness (etc) cannot be quantified or measured, that there is no way of calculating a trade-off between intensity and extent, or intensity and probability (etc), or comparing happiness to suffering. If happiness was not measurable, words like â€Å"happier† or â€Å"happiest† could have no meaning: â€Å"I was happier yesterday than I am today† would make no sense at all – it can only have the meaning which we (or most of us, at any rate) know that it has if we assume that happiness can be measured and compared. one should face the fact that goods are not necessarily intersubstitutable and consider the case, for instance, of an intransigent landowner who, when his avenue of limes is to be destroyed for the motorway, asks for 1p compensation, since nothing can be compensation. † [2] (One is reminded of the story of the mother handing out home-baked coo kies as a special treat to her family. The youngest child, on finding his cookie to be slightly smaller than the others, smashes it up and storms out in tears. In his disappointment, he interprets a fine gift as an affront, and he would rather make things worse than better – but then he's only a child. Adults, of course, have much less obvious and more subtle means of smashing their cookies. ) Initially, it seems very odd that the landowner should ask for a penny. If nothing can be compensation, why does he not ask for nothing? What use is this tiny amount of money? Far from suggesting that the trees are invaluable, it suggests that any money he could get for them is worthless to him! But, we may still ask, why the penny? And then we realize: it's a token; a chip in a psychological game (often called â€Å"Poor me! â€Å"). One can imagine the penny being carried about by the ex-landowner, and produced to evict pity from those unfortunates he manages to convince to listen to his story. That will be his best effort at compensating himself. Now suppose the scenario is amended slightly: imagine the landowner's daughter is dying from a terminal disease; that the motorway's supporters offer to pay for the new and expensive cure (which the landowner could not otherwise afford) in exchange for the land; and that they will not proceed without his permission. Are we still to presume that â€Å"nothing can be compensation† for his trees, not even the life of his daughter? Or will the landowner decide that his daughter's life is more important than his pretty view? It seems likely. But suppose not – suppose he chooses to keep the trees and lose his daughter. Does this show that the value of the lime avenue isn't convertible? Of course not, just that he values the trees more than his offspring. If the two different values were inconvertible, he would have no way to decide one way or the other – no way to choose between them. The fact that people can and do weigh-up and trade-off values, for all types of things, shows that it is both possible and practical to do so. In the original scenario, the sensible thing to do would be to ask for enough money to buy a new bit of land, and to plant a new avenue of limes on it; but, since the principle of utility does not imply the absence of fools, this criticism has no effect, and we needn't consider this matter further. †¢ Impracticality The third most common criticism is that it is too difficult to apply – that we cannot calculate all the effects for all the individuals (either because of the large number of individuals involved, and/or because of the uncertainty). The principle of utility is, essentially, a description of what makes something right or wrong – so in order for it to fail, someone must give an example of something which is useful but obviously wrong. The principle does not imply that we can calculate what is right or wrong – completely accurately, in advance, or at all! It does not harm the principle of utility at all merely to comment that it is difficult for us to work out what is right – it is merely a lament against the human condition. The idea of practicality is often used to suggest a problem exists in the theory, when it fact it does not. For example: â€Å"how far does one, under utilitarianism, have to research into the possibilities of maximally beneficent action, including prevention? † [3] The answer is simple, and entirely obvious: as far as it is useful to do so! That is, far enough so that we get the optimal trade-off between planning and implementing, so that we maximize our effectiveness as agents. The does imply that, in some cases, it may not be best to apply the felicific calculus at all: if the problem is one that we have faced many times before, and always reached the same conclusion; or if the case presents itself as an emergency, and isn't open to extended consideration; we can forego the calculus and act immediately. †¢ Insufficiency (of scope) One argument which some people propose as being more sensible than other criticisms, is that utilitarianism is â€Å"fine, so far as it goes†, but that it fails to consider some sources of value, and that it will therefore produce the wrong results when these different sources conflict. There is potential for confusion here – sometimes â€Å"utilitarianism† is used to specifically for â€Å"hedonistic utilitarianism†; and, sometimes, it means a particular class of ethical theory (something like â€Å"value-maximizing consequentialism†) †¦ under this meaning, an ethical theory which held the existence of plastic forks as supremely valuable, and therefore tried to maximize their number, would be â€Å"plastic fork utilitarianism†. [5] So, theories which have other intrinsic values than happiness and exemption from suffering can be accommodated within a utilitarian scheme. As for those other things that are suggested as having value, there are a few worth mentioning: â€Å"life†, â€Å"friendship†, and â€Å"knowledge† among them. I think it is notable that these things are valued, but that they also generally create happiness†¦ I suggest the reason that they are valued is precisely because they promote happiness. But, if they didn't, would we still value them? Does someone who suffers too much still value their life? Surely not, or else there would be no suicides. Do we value a friendship if we get no pleasure from it? On the contrary, it is more likely that we would define our friends as those people about whom we enjoyed being. And is it worthwhile learning and philosophising, if our knowledge is never of any use at all? Or, rather, is it just so much meta-physical stamp collecting? The case against these â€Å"other† goals is quite clear. 4. A Critique of Ethical Egoism Ethical egoism, like all exclusively subjective philosophies, is prone to constant self-contradiction because it supports all individuals' self interests. It also can lead to very unpleasant conclusions, such as choosing not to intervene in a crime against another. Egoists have difficulty judging anything that does not deal with them, which is one reason why ethical egoism is so impractical for people who are very aware of the world. The very legitimacy of the theory is often called into question because it prevents its own adherents from taking reasonable stances on major political and social issues and cannot in itself solve these issues. 5. Criticisms against Ethical Relativism A common argument against relativism suggests that it inherently contradicts, refutes, or stultifies itself: the statement â€Å"all is relative† classes either as a relative statement or as an absolute one. If it is relative, then this statement does not rule out absolutes. If the statement is absolute, on the other hand, then it provides an example of an absolute statement, proving that not all truths are relative. However, this argument against relativism only applies to relativism that positions truth as relative–i. e. pistemological/truth-value relativism. More specifically, it is only strong forms of epistemological relativism that can come in for this criticism as there are many epistemological relativists who posit that some aspects of what is regarded as â€Å"true† are not universal, yet still accept that other universal truths exist (e. g. gas laws). However, such exceptions need to be carefully justified, or â€Å"anything goes†. Another argume nt against relativism posits a Natural Law. Simply put, the physical universe works under basic principles: the â€Å"Laws of Nature†. Some contend that a natural Moral Law may also exist, for example as argued by Richard Dawkins in The God Delusion (2006)[35] and addressed by C. S. Lewis in â€Å"Mere Christianity† (1952). [36] Dawkins said â€Å"I think we face an equal but much more sinister challenge from the left, in the shape of cultural relativism – the view that scientific truth is only one kind of truth and it is not to be especially privileged. â€Å"[37] Aside from the general legitimacy of relativism, critics say it undermines morality, possibly resulting in anomie and complete Social Darwinism. Relativism denies that harming others is wrong in any absolute sense. The majority of relativists, of course, consider it immoral to harm others, but relativist theory allows for the opposite belief. In short, if an individual can believe it wrong to harm others, he can also believe it right–no matter what the circumstances. The problem of negation also arises. If everyone with differing opinions is right, then no one is. Thus instead of saying â€Å"all beliefs (ideas, truths, etc. ) are equally valid,† one might just as well say â€Å"all beliefs are equally worthless†. (see article on Doublethink). Another argument is that if relativism presupposes that â€Å"all beliefs are equally valid,† it then implies that any belief system holding itself to be the only valid one is untrue, which is a contradiction. An argument made by Hilary Putnam,[38] among others, states that some forms of relativism make it impossible to believe one is in error. If there is no truth beyond an individual's belief that something is true, then an individual cannot hold their own beliefs to be false or mistaken. A related criticism is that relativizing truth to individuals destroys the distinction between truth 6. Criticism of Virtue Ethics: According to critics, a major problem with the theory is the difficulty of establishing the nature of the virtues, especially as different people, cultures and societies often have vastly different opinions on what constitutes a virtue. Some proponents counter-argue that any character trait defined as a virtue must be universally regarded as a virtue for all people in all times, so that such cultural relativism is not relevant. Others, however, argue that the concept of virtue must indeed be relative and grounded in a particular time and place, but this in no way negates the value of the theory, merely keeps it current. Another objection is that the theory is not â€Å"action-guiding†, and does not focus on what sorts of actions are morally permitted and which ones are not, but rather on what sort of qualities someone ought to foster in order to become a good person. Thus, a virtue theorist may argue that someone who commits a murder is severely lacking in several important virtues (e. g. compassion and fairness, among others), but does proscribe murder as an inherently immoral or impermissible sort of action, and the theory is therefore useless as a universal norm of acceptable conduct uitable as a base for legislation. Virtue theorists may retort that it is in fact possible to base a judicial system on the moral notion of virtues rather than rules (modern theories of law related to Virtue Ethics are known as virtue jurisprudence, and focus on the importance of character and human excellence as opposed to moral rules or consequences). They argue that Virtue Ethics can also be action-guiding through observance of virtuous agents as examplars, and through the life-long process of moral learning, for which quick-fix rules are no substitute. Some have argued that Virtue Ethics is self-centred because its primary concern is with the agent's own character, whereas morality is supposed to be about other people, and how our actions affect other people. Thus, any theory of ethics should require us to consider others for their own sake, and not because particular actions may benefit us. Some argue that the whole concept of personal well-being (which is essentially just self-interest) as an ethical master value is mistaken, especially as its very personal nature does not admit to comparisons between individuals. Proponents counter that virtues in themselves are concerned with how we respond to the needs of others, and that the good of the agent and the good of others are not two separate aims, but both result from the exercise of virtue. Other critics are concerned that Virtue Ethics leaves us hostage to luck, and that it is unfair that some people will be lucky and receive the help and encouragement they need to attain moral maturity, while others will not, through no fault of their own. Virtue Ethics, however, embraces moral luck, arguing that the vulnerability of virtues is an essential feature of the human condition, which makes the attainment of the good life all the more valuable. †¢ Cultural diversity Some criticize virtue ethics in relation to the difficulty involved with establishing the nature of the virtues. They argue that different people, cultures, and societies often have vastly different perspectives on what constitutes a virtue. For example, many would have once considered a virtuous woman to be quiet, servile, and industrious. This conception of female virtue no longer holds true in many modern societies. Alasdair MacIntyre responds to this criticism, by arguing that any account of the virtues must indeed be generated out of the community in which those virtues are to be practiced: The very word â€Å"ethics† implies â€Å"ethos. † That is to say that the virtues are, and necessarily must be, grounded in a particular time and place. What counts as virtue in fourth century Athens would be a ludicrous guide to proper behavior in twenty-first century Toronto, and vice versa. But, the important question in virtue ethics as to what kind of person one ought to be, which may be answered differently depending on the ethos, can still give real direction and purpose to people. †¢ Lack of moral rules Another criticism of virtue ethics is that it lacks absolute moral rules which can give clear guidance on how to act in specific circumstances such as abortion, embryo research, and euthanasia. Martha Nussbaum responds to this criticism, by saying that there are no absolute rules. In a war situation, for example, the rule that you must not kill an innocent person is impractical. According to Nussbaum, it is the virtues that are absolutes, and we should strive for them. If elected leaders strive for them, things will go well. On the issue of embryo research, Alasdair MacIntyre suggests that people first need to understand the social situation in which although many people are negative about embryonic stem-cell research, they are not upset with the fact that thousands of embryos actually die at various stages in the IVF (in vitro fertilization) process. Then, says MacIntyre, people need to approach the issue with virtues such as wisdom, right ambition, and temperance. Thus, some virtue ethicists argue that it is possible to base a judicial system on the moral notion of virtues rather than on rules. 7. Critiques of Normative Contractarianism Many critiques have been leveled against particular contractarian theories and against contractarianism as a framework for normative thought about justice or morality. (See the entry on contemporary approaches to the social contract. ) Jean Hampton criticized Hobbes in her book Hobbes and the Social Contract Tradition, in a way that has direct relevance to contemporary contractarianism. Hampton argues that the characterization of individuals in the state of nature leads to a dilemma. Hobbes' state of nature as a potential war of all against all can be generated either as a result of passions (greed and fear, in particular) or rationality (prisoner's dilemma reasoning, in which the rational players each choose to renege on agreements made with each other). But if the passions account is correct, then Hampton argues, the contractors will still be motivated by these passions after the social contract is drawn up, and so will fail to comply with it. And if the rationality account is correct, then rational actors will not comply with the social contract any more than they will cooperate with each other before it is made. This critique has an analog for Gauthier's theory, in that Gauthier must also claim that without the contract individuals will be stuck in some socially sub-optimal situation that is bad enough to motivate them to make concessions to each other for some agreement, yet the reason for their inability to cooperate without the contract cannot continue to operate after the contract is made. Gauthier's proposed solution to this problem is to argue that individuals will choose to dispose themselves to be constrained (self-interest) maximizers rather than straightforward (self-interest) maximizers, that is, to retrain themselves not to think first of their self-interest, but rather to dispose themselves to keep their agreements, provided that they find themselves in an environment of like-minded individuals. But this solution has been found dubitable by many commentators. (See Vallentyne, 1991) Hampton also objects to the contemporary contractarian assumption that interaction is merely instrumentally valuable. She argues that if interaction were only valuable for the fruits of cooperation that it bears for self-interested cooperators, then it would be unlikely that those cooperators could successfully solve the compliance problem. In short, they are likely not to be able to motivate morality in themselves without some natural inclination to morality. Interestingly, Hampton agrees with Gauthier that contractarianism is right to require any moral or political norms to appeal to individuals self-interest as a limitation on self-sacrifice or exploitation of any individual. In an important article, â€Å"On Being the Object of Property,† African-American law professor Patricia Williams offers a critique of the contract metaphor itself. Contracts require independent agents who are able to make and carry out promises without the aid of others. Historically, while white men have been treated as these pure wills of contract theory, Blacks and women have been treated as anti-will: dependent and irrational. Both ideals are false; whole people, she says, are dependent on other whole people. But by defining some as contractors and others as incapable of contract, whole classes of people can be excluded from the realm of justice. This point has been taken up by other critics of contractarianism, such as Eva Kittay (1999) who points out that not only are dependents such as children and disabled people left out of consideration by contractarian theories, but their caretakers' needs and interests will tend to be underestimated in the contract, as well. David Hume was an early critic of the validity of social contract theory, arguing against any theory based on a historical contract, on the grounds that one should not be bound by the consent of one's ancestors. He also questioned to what extent the fall-back â€Å"state of nature† which underlies most social contract theory is actually historically accurate, or whether it is just a hypothetical or possible situation. Others have pointed out that, with an assumed initial position which is sufficiently dire (such as that posited by Hobbes), Contractarianism may lead to the legitimization of Totalitarianism (as Hobbes himself foresaw). Some commentators have argued that a social contract of the type described cannot be considered a legitimate contract at all, on the grounds that the agreement is not fully voluntary or without coercion, because a government can and will use force against anyone who does not wish to enter into the contract. In Rousseau's conception of the social contract, even individuals who disagree with elements of the social contract must nevertheless agree to abide by it or risk punishment (they must be â€Å"forced to be free†). It is argued that this idea of force negates the requirement that a contract be entered into voluntarily, or at least to permit individuals to abstain from entering into a contract. In response, it has been countered that the name â€Å"contract† is perhaps misleading (â€Å"social compact† has been suggested as an alternative), and that anyway individuals explicitly indicate their consent simply by remaining in the jurisdiction. Either way, social contract theory does seem to be more in accordance with contract law in the time of Hobbes and Locke (based on a mutual exchange of benefits) than in our own. Other critics have questioned the assumption that individuals are always self-interested, and that they would actually want the benefits of society supposedly offered by the contract. A further objection sometimes raised is that Contractarianism is more of a descriptive theory than a normative guide or a justification. 8. Critiques of Rights Theory Critiques of rights come in two forms. The first is an attack on the substance of doctrines that give rights a central place. These critiques allege that the content of such doctrines is, in one way or other, malformed or unjustified. Here we find, for example, the criticism that natural rights doctrines are â€Å"so much flat assertion,† and that utilitarian rights tend to be implausibly weak. The second form of critique attacks the language of rights itself. The objection here is that it is inappropriate or counterproductive to express at least some kinds of normative concerns in terms of rights. We should, according to the second form of critique, reduce or avoid â€Å"rights talk. †¢ Critiques of Rights Doctrine Marx attacked the substance of the revolutionary eighteenth century American and French political documents that proclaimed the fundamental â€Å"rights of man†: liberty, equality, security, property, and the free exercise of religion. Marx objected that these alleged rights derive from a false conception of the human individual as unrelated to others, as having interests can be defined without reference to others, and as always potentially in conflict with others. The rights-bearing individual is an â€Å"isolated monad†¦ withdrawn behind his private interests and whims and separated from the community. † (Marx 1844, 146) The right of property, Marx asserted, exemplifies the isolating and anti-social character of these alleged rights of man. On the one hand, the right of property is the right to keep others at a distance: the legal equivalent of a barbed wire fence. On the other hand, the right of property allows an owner to transfer his resources at his own pleasure and for his own gain, without regard even for the desperate need for those resources elsewhere. Similarly, Marx held that the much-celebrated individual right to liberty reinforces selfishness. Those who are ascribed the right to do what they wish so long as they do not hurt others will perpetuate a culture of egoistic obsession. As for equality, the achievement of equal rights in a liberal state merely distracts people from noticing that their equality is purely formal: a society with formally equal rights will continue to be divided by huge inequalities in economic and political power. Finally, these so-called â€Å"natural† rights are in fact not natural to humans at all. They are simply the defining elements of the rules of the modern mode of production, perfectly suited to fit each individual into the capitalist machine. Communitarians (Taylor, Walzer, MacIntyre, Sandel) sound several of the same themes in their criticisms of contemporary liberal and libertarian theories. The communitarians object that humans are not, as such theories assume, â€Å"antecedently individuated. † Nozick's â€Å"state of nature† theorizing, for example, errs in presuming that individuals outside of a stable, state-governed social order will develop the autonomous capacities that make them deserving of rights. Nor should we attempt, as in Rawls's original position, to base an argument for rights on what individuals would choose in abstraction from their particular identities and community attachments. There is no way to establish a substantive political theory on what all rational agents want in the abstract. Rather, theorists should look at the particular social contexts in which real people live their lives, and to the meanings that specific goods carry within different cultures. This criticism continues by accusing liberal and libertarian theories of being falsely universalistic, in insisting that all societies should bend themselves to fit within a standard-sized cage of rights. Insofar as we should admit rights into our understanding of the world at all, communitarians say, we should see them as part of ongoing practices of social self-interpretation and negotiation— and so as rules that can vary significantly between cultures. These kinds of criticisms have been discussed in detail (e. g. Gutmann 1985, Waldron 1987b, Mulhall and Swift 1992). Their validity turns on weighty issues in moral and political theory. What can be said here is that a common theme in most of these criticisms—that prominent rights doctrines are in some way excessively individualistic or â€Å"atomistic†Ã¢â‚¬â€need not cut against any theory merely because it uses the language of rights. Ignatieff (2003, 67) errs, for example, when he charges that â€Å"rights language cannot be parsed or translated into a nonindividualistic, communitarian framework. It presumes moral individualism and is nonsensical outside that assumption. † As we saw above, the language of rights is able to accommodate rightholders who are individuals as such, but also individuals considered as members of groups, as well as groups themselves, states, peoples, and so on. Indeed the non-individualistic potential of rights-language is more than a formal possibility. The doctrine of international human rights—the modern cousin of eighteenth century natural rights theory—ascribes several significant rights to groups. The international Convention against Genocide, for example, forbids actions intending to destroy any national, ethnic, racial or religious group; and both of the human rights Covenants ascribe to peoples the right to self-determination. Such examples show that the language of rights is not individualistic in its essence. †¢ Critiques of the Language of Rights The language of rights can resist the charge that it is necessarily complicit with individualism. However, critics have accused rights talk of impeding social progress: Our rights talk, in its absoluteness promotes unrealistic expectations, heightens social conflict, and inhibits dialogue that might lead toward consensus, accommodation, or at least the discovery of common ground. In its silence concerning responsibilities, it seems to condone acceptance of the benefits of living in a democratic social welfare state, without accepting the corresponding personal and civic obligations†¦. In its insularity, it shuts out potentially important aids to the process of self-correcting learning. All of these traits promote mere assertion over reason-giving. Glendon (1991, 14) here draws out some of the detrimental practical consequences of the popular connection between rights and conclusive reasons that we saw above. Since rights assertions suggest conclusive reasons, people can be tempted to assert rights when they want to end a discussion instead of continuing it. One plays a right as a trump card when one has run out of arguments. Similarly, the ready availability of rights language may lead parties initially at odds with each other toward confrontation instead of negotiation, as each side escalates an arms-race of rights assertions that can only be resolved by a superior authority like a court. One line of feminist theory has picked up on this line of criticism, identifying the peremptory and rigidifying discourse of rights with the confrontational masculine â€Å"voice. † (Gilligan 1993) It is not inevitable that these unfortunate tendencies will afflict those who make use of the language of rights. As we have seen, it may be plausible to hold that each right is â€Å"absolute† only within a elaborately gerrymandered area. And it may be possible to produce deep theories to justify why one has the rights that one asserts. However, it is plausible that the actual use of rights talk does have the propensities that Glendon suggests. It seems no accident that America, â€Å"the land of rights,† is also the land of litigation. Another deleterious consequence of rights talk that Glendon picks out is its tendency to move the moral focus toward persons as rightholders, instead of toward persons as bearers of responsibilities. This critique is developed by O'Neill (1996, 127–53; 2002, 27–34). A focus on rightholders steers moral reasoning toward the perspective of recipience, instead of toward the traditional active ethical questions of what one ought to do and how one ought to live. Rights talk also leads those who use it to neglect important virtues such as courage and beneficence, which are duties to which no rights correspond. Finally, the use of rights language encourages people to make impractical demands, since one can assert a right without attending to the desirability or even the possibility of burdening others with the corresponding obligations. Criticisms such as O'Neill's do not target the language of rights as a whole. They aim squarely at the passive rights, and especially at claim-rights, instead of at the active privileges and powers. Nevertheless, it is again plausible that the spread of rights talk has encouraged the tendencies that these criticisms suggest. The modern discourse of rights is characteristically deployed by those who see themselves or others as potential recipients, entitled to insist on certain benefits or protections. Describing fundamental norms in terms of rights has benefits as well as dangers. The language of rights can give clear expression to elaborate structures of freedom and authority. When embodied in particular doctrines, such as in the international human rights documents, the language of rights can express in accessible terms the standards for minimally acceptable treatment that individuals can demand from those with power over them. Rights are also associated with historical movements for greater liberty and equality, so assertions of rights in pursuit of justice can carry a resonance that other appeals lack. Whether these benefits of using rights language overbalance the dangers remains a live question in moral, political and legal theory. †¢ The Critique of Rights The critique of rights developed by critical legal theorists has five basic elements: o The discourse of rights is less useful in securing progressive social change than liberal theorists and politicians assume. Legal rights are in fact indeterminate and incoherent. o The use of rights discourse stunts human imagination and mystifies people about how law really works. o At least as prevailing in American law, the discourse of rights reflects and produces a kind of isolated individualism that hinders social solidarity and genuine human connection. o Rights discourse can actually impede progressive movement for genuine democracy and justice. Right s should not be credited with progressive political advances. In â€Å"The Critique of Rights,† 47 SMU Law Review, Mark Tushnet emphasizes the first theme in arguing that progressive lawyers overestimate the importance of their work because of an inflated and erroneous view of the role of the Supreme Court in advancing progressive goals in the 1960s. That period of judicial leadership was aberrational in American history and also more reactive and pro-active, depending on mass social movements rather than lawyers’ arguments. Legal victories also are often not enforced; judicial victories do not obviate the need for ongoing political mobilization. Legal victories may have ideological value even where they lack material effects; a court victory can mark the entry of previously excluded groups into the discourse of rights which holds ideological importance inside the nation. Nonetheless, legal and political cultures inside the United States can also produce large consequences from judicial losses for relatively powerless groups. Losing a case based on a claim of rights may in some cases lead the public to think that the claims have no merit and need not be given weight in policy debates. Robert Gordon similarly argues that even noted legal victories for blacks, for labor, for the poor, and for women did not succeed in fundamentally altering the social power structure. â€Å"The labor movement secured the vitally important legal right to organize and strike, at the cost of fitting into a framework of legal regulation that certified the legitimacy of managements making most of the important decisions about the conditions of work. † Robert Gordon, â€Å"Some Critical Theories of law and Their Critics,† in The Politics of Law 647 (David Kairys ed. , third edition, Basic Books: New York, 1998). Moreover, rights are double-edged, as demonstrated in the content of civil rights. â€Å"Floor entitlements can be turned into ceilings (you’ve got your rights, but that’s all you’ll get). Formal rights without practical enforceable content are easily substituted for real benefits. Anyway, the powerful can always assert counter rights (to vested property, to differential treatment according to â€Å"merit,† to association with one’s own kind) to the rights of the disadvantaged. â€Å"Rights† conflict and the conflict cannot be resolved by appeal to rights. † Id. , at 657-68. The content of contemporary American rights in particular must be understood as failing to advance progressive causes. Current constitutional doctrine, for example, heavily favors so-called negative liberties (entitlements to be free of government interference) over positive liberties (entitlements to government protection or aid) and thus reinforces the pernicious â€Å"public/private† distinction. That distinction implies that neither government nor society as a whole are responsible for providing persons with the resources they need to exercise their liberties, and indeed, any governmental action risks violating private liberties. Current freedom of speech doctrine accords protection to commercial speech and pornography, limits governmental regulation of private contributions to political campaigns, and forbids sanctions for hate speech. Such rules operate in the often-stirring language of individual freedom, but their effect is more likely to be regressive than progressive. Rights are indeterminate and incoherent. As Mark Tushnet puts it, â€Å"nothing whatever follows from a courts adoption of some legal rule (except insofar as the very fact that a court has adopted the rule has some social impact the ideological dimension with which the critique of rights is concerned. Progressive legal victories occur, according to the indeterminacy thesis, because of the surrounding social circumstances. † At least as they figure in contemporary American legal discourse, rights cannot provide answer to real cases because they are cast at high levels of abstraction without clear application to particular problems an d because different rights frequently conflict or present gaps. Often, judges try to resolve conflicts by attempting to â€Å"balance† individual rights against relevant â€Å"social interests† or by assessing the relative weight of two or more conflicting rights. These methods seem more revealing of individual judicial sensibilities and political pressures than specific reach of specific rights. Moreover, central rights are themselves internally incoherent. The right to freedom of contract, for example, combines freedom with control: people should be free to bind themselves to agreements: the basic idea is private ordering. But the laws reliance on courts to enforce contracts reveals the doctrines grant of power to the government to decide which agreements to enforce, and indeed what even counts as an agreement. Even more basically, freedom of contract implies that the freedom of both sides to the contract can be enhanced and protected, and yet no one stands able to know what actually was in the minds of parties on both sides. Resort to notions of objective intent and formalities replace commitment to the freedom of the actual parties. 3. Legal rights stunt people’s imagination and mystify people about how law really works. The very language of a right, like the right to freedom of contract, appeals to peoples genuine desires for personal autonomy and social solidarity, and yet masks the extent to which the social order makes both values elusive, rite Peter Gabel and Jay Fineman, in Contract Law as Ideology, in The Politics of Law 496,498 (David Kairys, ed. , third edition, Basic Books: New York 1998). Contract law in fact works to conceal the coercive system of relationships with widespread unfairness in contemporary market-based societies. The system of rights renders invisible the persistent functional roles such as landlord, tenant, employer, and individual consumer of products produced by multinational conglomerates, that themselves reflect widely disparate degrees of economic and political power. Contract law is a significant feature in the massive denial of experiences of impotence and isolation and the apology for the system producing such experiences. Similar points can be made about other areas of law. Property rights, for example, imply promotion of individual freedom and security, and yet owners property rights are precisely the justification afforded to the control of others and arbitrary discretion to wreak havoc over the lives of tenants, workers, and neighbors. Contract law artificially constrains analysis by focusing n a discrete promise and a discrete act of reliance rather than complex and often diffuse communications and inevitable reliance by people on others than. Courts and legislatures recognize to some extent the power of these real features of people’s lives but the language of legal rules often leads decision makers to feel powerless to act on such recognition. Workers at a U. S. Steel plant in Youngstown, Ohio and their lawyers tried to buy the plant after the company announced plans to close it. Federal trial and appellate judges acknowledged that the plant was the lifeblood of the community but nonetheless concluded that contract and property law provided no basis for preventing the company either from shutting down the plant or refusing to negotiate to sell it to the workers. Local 1330, United Steel Workers v. United States Steel Corp. 631 F. 2d 1264 (6th Cir. 1980). Gabel and Feinman conclude: â€Å"it was not the law that restrained the judges, but their own beliefs in the ideology of law. By recognizing the possibilities of social responsibility and solidarity that are immanent in the doctrine of reliance, they could have both provided the workers a remedy and helped to move contract law in a direction that would better align the legal ideals of freedom, equality, and community with the realization of these ideals in everyday life. † Id. ,at 509. But the ideology of law made the judges feel they could not do so. [more reading: Staughton Lynd, the fight Against Shutdowns: Youngstown’s Steel Mill Closings (Single Jack Books: San Pedro, CA 1982); Joseph William Singer, The Reliance Interest in Property, 40 Stanford Law Rev. 11 (1988)] Conventional rights discourse reflects and produces isolated individualism and hinders social solidarity and genuine human connection. The individualism pervading American law calls for â€Å"the making of a sharp distinction between ones interests and those of others, combined with the belief that a preference in conduct for one’s own interests is legitimate, but that one should be willing to respect the rules that make it possible to coexist with others similarly self-interested. The form of conduct associated with individualism is self-reliance. This means an insistence on defining and achieving objectives without help from others (i. e. , without being dependent on them or asking sacrifices of them. † Duncan Kennedy, Form and Substance in Private Law Adjudication, 89 Harv. L. Rev. 1685(1976). As implemented in law, individualism means that there are some areas within which actors (whether actual individuals or groups) have total arbitrary discretion to pursue their own ends without regard to the impact of their actions on others. A legal right evokes the idea of a domain protected by law within which the individual is free to do as he or she pleases, and the arrangements ensuring that freedom are fair, neutral, and equitable. Judges must facilitate private ordering and avoid regulating or imposing their own values on the aggregate of individual choices. The state thereby polices all boundary crossings by private individuals and contributes to the pretense that individual, private, self-interested values are all that matter. Yet people need others as much as they need their own freedom. Altruism has roots as deep as individualism, and altruism urges sacrifice, sharing, cooperation, and attention to others. Rights help people deny the equal tug of individual freedom and social solidarity on people’s hearts and assert that legal rules resolve the tension by assuring that people relate to one another through the recognition and respect for each other’s separate, bounded spheres of self-interest. Yet this very mode of thinking renders it more difficult for individuals and for the legal system to act upon altruism, social cooperation, and relationships of generosity, reciprocity, and sacrifice. The legal structure of rules, and the abstracted roles (owner, employee etc. ) upon which it depends makes it more likely that people feel helpless to counteract existing hierarchies of wealth and privilege or any perceived unfairness. Robert Gordon explains: â€Å"This process of allowing the structures we ourselves have built to mediate relations among us so as to make us see ourselves as performing abstract roles in a play that is produced by no human agency is what is usually called (following Marx and such modern writers as Sartre and Lukacs) reification. It is a way people have of manufacturing necessity: they build structures, then act as if (and genuinely come to believe that) the structures they have built are determined by history, human nature, and economic law. † Robert Gordon, Some Critical Theories of law and Their Critics, in the Politics of Law 650 (David Kairys, ed. , third edition, Basic Books: New York 1998). Rights discourse actually can impede genuine democracy and justice. Rights discourse contributes to passivity, alienation, and a sense of inevitability about the way things are. Even when relatively powerless groups win a legal victory, the rights involved can impede progressive social change. The victory may make those who won it complacent while galvanizing their opponents to do all they can to minimize the effects of the ruling. Conflicting rights or alternative interpretations of the same rights are always available. Conservatives can deploy the indeterminacy of rights for their benefit. Using the language of rights reinforces the individualistic ideology and claims of absolute power within individual’s spheres of action that must be undermined if progressive social change is to become more possible. The language of rights perpetuates the misconception that legal argument is independent of political argument and social movements. Through rights language, those in power often grant strategic concessions of limits sets of rights to co-opt genuinely radical social movements. Progressives who use the language of rights thus lend support to the ideology they must oppose. With the notable exception of Roberto Unger, who has proposed an alternative regime with immunity rights, destabilization rights, market rights, and solidarity rights, most critical legal scholars argue that rights do not advance and may impede political and social change. Rights are indeterminate and yet conceal the actual operations of power and human yearnings for connection and mutual aid. Contemporary legal and constitutional practice are less likely to provide avenues for challenging unfair social and economic hierarchies than political movements, and a focus on law reform can divert and disengage those political movements. Criticism: There is some element of truth in this theory, but difficult to believe that all rights enjoyed by people in a state are true to customs and traditions. Human society is dynamic and the custom change from time to time and from place to place. Rights correspond the different stages in the evolution of human society. Rights enjoyed people in a capitalist society, for example, are different from the enjoyed by people in a feudal society. There can be no unanimity opinion as to what historical rights are. Laski says, â€Å"We do not mean by rights the grant of some his conditions possessed in the childhood of the race, but lost in the pr of time. Few theories have done greater harm to philosophy, or m violence to facts, than the notion that they represent the recovery of a inheritance. There is no golden age to which we may seek to return. † References

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International and Comparative HRM - Essay Example Nevertheless, the management department of human resource faces some critical challenges in managing people of different cultural orientation, races, language, different educational backgrounds and system of believes. Moreover, the human resource department deals with intergenerational people with varying competencies as well as orientations. Human resource management adopts various frameworks for their operations depending in the country, prevailing factors such as government policies, and social cultural frameworks among other considerations. In particular, the human resource management within multinational corporations are the most hit by the dynamics that characterize the current world (Srivastava and Agarwa, 2012, 46-47). There is constant designing as well as implementation of policies geared to regulating the dynamics in this field within the different nations that the corporation operates. However, there are a whole range of potential strategic threats that the human manageme nt departments within Multinational Corporation are facing. Moreover, the practices within the department of human resource have some similarities, which this paper will as well discuss. Over and above this analysis, this paper aims at evaluating some potential problems faced by human resource management while managing people. These are the problems that the roots are traced back to the concerned people. They may include corruption, mismanagement of a corporation’s fund, age difference as well as the other ethical matters that govern a society. Decision making by the MNCs are influenced by the international as well as the national guiding frameworks in political, social, economic as well as the technological contexts. Multinational corporations consistently strive to unify the strategies adopted for dealing with the human resource within the different countries of operations. The major issues that are seen to adversely affect the efforts of the human resource management withi n the global perspective are the prevailing economic conditions and systems, political systems, legal systems, education systems as well as ethical (social-cultural) issues (Anyim, Ikemefuna and Mbah, 2011, 4) . A country’s economic system is seen to influence the human resource practices of multinationals in the way of training as well as hiring the personnel. For instance, within the socialist countries, multinational find it rather easy to training and manage own employees as the systems advocate for free educations systems. The costs that are incurred on the matters of training employees in their respective areas of specialization are low. However, the case in capitalistic countries is quite different as the costs of training are very high owing to the already fixed systems of education. Literature reveals that there exists a critical problem within the management of the employees from the different backgrounds especially as regards to the wages as well as the salary pack ages. Human resource management practices are also influenced by the legal systems that are in operation within the country of operation. Normally, the legal systems in existence within a country framework are derived from these cultures as well as the societal norms that do govern the people within the country. It is the responsibility

Individual Market Factors Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Individual Market Factors - Essay Example 100% of International Distillers Uganda, 51% Serengeti Breweries Ltd, 100% of East African malting, 46% United Distillers & Vintners-Kenya, among others. The company is leading in alcohol beverages ranging from spirits, beer, and Adult Non Alcoholic Drinks (ANADS). EABL’S market demand is both locally and internationally. In Kenya, its market demand is approximate to be about 85% of the entire alcohol market (Kilasi et al, 2013). In Tanzania, its market demand is on the rise. However, because of economic slowdown in Uganda its market share is reducing gradually. The company however aims at increasing its market demand by expanding its business to countries like Ethiopia, Eritrea, Rwanda, Burundi, Southern Sudan, and Eastern DRC. The company’s increased demand for its products is because of its continued integration of customer needs into the company’s production processes. For instance, the company actively carries out market research to understand the needs of consumers hence resulting to increased demand because consumers’ needs are factored into the production process. External and internal environmental elements affect the company’s operations (Megal and Word, 2009). External elements include competition, legislation and regulation, social cultural factors, technology among others. Government regulation on certain forms of the advertisement adversely affects the company. Alcoholic lobbyists, competition from other companies such as Keroche Industries’ influence the company’s trade. Either taxation is also a major environmental element that negatively influences the returns of EABL. However, it is worth noting that the company has made special arrangements with host countries to ensure that the issue of taxation is resolved. EABL faces stiff competition both locally and internationally. Some of the major competitors include Heineken, Kenya Wines Agencies among others. The company has responded to increased competition by increasing its brands,

Childhood Obesity Essay Example for Free

Childhood Obesity Essay Is There Any Need to Be Worried About Childhood Obesity? Catherine (Boyuan Zheng) ESLI Level 5P Is There Any Need to Be Worried About Childhood Obesity? 1. Introduction Childhood obesity is a major focus of the society and the public health officials. And childhood obesity trends have increased dramatically over the past several years (Staniford, Breckon, Copeland, 2012, p. 545). Overweight is measured by body mass index which is called BMI. According to the survey from the 2003 to 2004 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), overweight increased from 7. 2% to 13.9% among children during 2 to 5 years old and from 11% to 19% among children who are 6 to 11 years old. And among 12- to 19-year-olds, the statistics of overweight increased from 11% to 17.1% from 2003 to 2004 (Faith, Kerns, Diewald, 2009, p.281). In the past several years, the statistics of childhood obesity has a dramatic global increase. Therefore, childhood obesity is becoming a more and more serious problem. According to Ebbeling, Pawlak and Luwing (2002), â€Å"[b]odyweight is regulated by numerous physiological mechanisms that maintain balance between energy intake and energy expenditure† (p.474). The factors that cause childhood obesity include four aspects: (1) Genetic, perinatal, and early-life factors, such as â€Å"five genetic mutations that cause human obesity have been identified, all presenting in childhood, and the BMI normally decreases until 5-6 years, then increases through adolescence†; (2) Physical activity, children who are lack of exercises are easy to be obese, for example, television viewing is thought to promote weight gain because of keeping sitting; (3) Diet, for instance, fast food almost comprises all of the potentially adverse dietary factors, â€Å"including saturated and trans fat, high glycaemic index, high energy density, and, increasingly, large portion size†; and (4) Family factors, the risk of obesity is effected by the parent-children inactions and the home environment, for example, many families like to eat in restaurants which tends to serve larger portions of energy dense food (Ebbeling et al., 2002, pp.474-476). Nowadays, chil dhood obesity is becoming more and more serious. It has been identified as a harmful epidemic all over the world, especially in the U.S., Brazail and China (CIA World Factbook, 2009, para.7). As childhood obesity causes many negative effects both on children themselves and on the healthcare system, it is important to pay attention to the possible solutions for childhood obesity. 2. The Negative Effects of Childhood Obesity Childhood obesity has negative effects on childhood life which include intelligent and health complications. In other words, obese children would meet many problems during their usual study and life. People need to concern the health complications which are associated with childhood obesity, including â€Å"Elevated blood pressure, hyperinsulinemia and glucose intolerance, respiratory abnormalities, poor body image, and increased adulthood mortality in females† (Faith et al., 2009, p.281). This reveals that childhood obesity has a significant negative influence on the maintenance of a healthy body, even in the future of childhood life. In addition, childhood intelligent quotient (IQ) is associated with childhood obesity. According to the research, â€Å"the FIQ [full intelligent quotient] and PIQ [performances intelligent quoient]of obesity in school-age children were lower than normal weight children† (Yu, Han, Cao, Guo, 2009, p.665). In other words, obesity would mak e children face problems such as depression, social isolation, low self-esteem and poor academic performance. Therefore, overweight children need to face more problems on health and intelligence than normal weight children. In addition, childhood overweight and obesity cause not only childhood life problems, but also the financial burden to the public health system. Obese children cost much higher publicly funded medical and pharmaceutical costs than normal weight children. According to Au’s research, â€Å"the financial burden of overweight and obesity occurs even during the first 5 years of primary school†, and â€Å"the prevention of overweight in children as young as 4-5 years could have significant economic (in addition to health) implications† (Au, 2012, p.670). This clearly shows that childhood obesity is the financial burden to public medical and pharmaceutical costs. Therefore, from an economic perspective, it is necessary to control the trends of childhood obesity. 3. The Treatments of Childhood Obesity From the negative effects that are talked about, I discuss that it is necessary to find effective solutions to solve the problems of childhood obesity. There are four solutions: (1) Diet modification, (2) Physical activity, (3) Psychotherapies for managing obesity, and (4) Parent participation. 3.1 Diet Modification Diet Modification is the most useful and effective pattern for obese children losing weight. What obese children firstly need to do is to change the dietary behaviors and keep healthy dietary strategies. As Faith et al. points out, â€Å"behavior modification strategies, such as behavioral contracting, stimulus control, and/or a specific dietary plan, are required to help children lose weight (Faith et al., 2009, p.291). This reveals that it is powerful and useful to make a healthy dietary component such as moderate caloric restriction and low-fat diets for overweight children. In addition, making good food choices is also a good way to control obese children’s weight. Epstein (1988) gives an successful manner to children weight loss, it is called â€Å"Stoplight Diet† which â€Å"effectively shifts the emphasis from calorie counting to making smarter food choice, monitoring portion sizes† (as qtd. in Faith et al., 2009, p.291). In other words, when people selec t food, they need to keep a balance on the energy intake and energy expenditure consumption instead of only focusing on caloric restriction. Dietary modification is a significant way of solving problems for childhood obesity, and it is also a healthy way for obese children. 3.2 Physical Activity In addition to dietary modification, increased physical activity is the other significant component of behavior treatments for overweight children. It suggests that exercise therapy is essential to the maintenance for losing weight. According to Epstein (1995), there are some â€Å"short-term effects of physical activity interventions on both children’s weight status as well as their cardiorespiratory fitness and other cardiovascular health benefits† (as qtd. in Faith et al., 2009, p.293). This clearly shows that physical activity is an effective way for obese children both on losing weight and keeping their important organs healthy. Furthermore, the therapy of physical activity for obese children is applied to physical education (PE) programs in schools. In the 2-year longitudinal investigation of elementary school  children, it shows that â€Å"an appropriately designed and administered PE [physical education] program can produce benefits for elementary school chil dren, not only by attenuating increases in percentage of body fat typical of children in this age group but also by enhancing numeracy development† (Telford et al., 2012, p.371). In other words, PE programs can be benefit both on keeping obese children’s weight losing and enhancing children’s capabilities of learning. To sum up, physical activity is an essential treatment for overweight children to lose weight and keep healthy. 3.3 Psychotherapies for managing obesity Furthermore, there is another one which is called psychotherapies for managing obesity which are accepted by many overweight children’s parents. Psychotherapies for managing obesity can effectively change people’s behaviors about their unhealthy lifestyles. Dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT) is the most useful therapy in psychotherapies for managing obesity, and it â€Å"does not focus directly on binge episodes or on reducing bingeing, but rather on the dysregulated affect that can trigger binge eating† (Taylor, Stonehocker, Steele, Sharma, 2012, p.15). In other words, DBT can successfully stop obese children from going on a binge, and help children to control themselves about their diet behaviors. In addition, there is another powerful treatment in psychotherapies for managing obesity. Taylor et al. also introduce motivational interviewing (MI) in their research, â€Å"MI is a strategy designed to enhance patients’ motivation for change and adherence to treatment and is fundamentally different from educational approaches† and â€Å"this type of approach may be particularly well suited to weight loss† (Taylor et al., 2012, p.15). In other words, in weight management, this behavior can make obese children follow plans for losing weight effectively, and make them insist on the strict diet component which helps them to lose weight. Therefore, psychotherapies for managing obesity can be successfully applied to solve the problems about childhood obesity, although this kind of treatments is controversial among parents. 3.4 Parent Participation Finally, the benefit of parental participation in childhood weight-loss processes has drawn attention from the whole society. In other words, Parental participation is a useful and effective pattern to solve the issue about childhood obesity. According to Golan et al. (1998), the research shows that â€Å"parental participation did not improve effect found for treating children alone. Although other data suggests that treating parent alone may be more effective for inducing child weight loss.† (as qtd. in Faith et al., 2009, p.295). This demonstrates that it would be better if parents take part in their children weight-loss programs, and they can make weight-loss programs effectively. In addition, parental participation can be better for obese children’s healthful eating. Faith et al. suggest parents that â€Å"[n]ever use food as a reward; establish daily family meal and snack times, offer only healthy food options; he a role model for children; and parents or caregivers should determine what food is offered and when, and the child should decide whether to eat† (Faith et al., 2009, p.295). This clearly shows that parents should focus on increasing praise for children’s healthy diet behaviors and activity choices. They also need to better plan the whole family eating and physical activity programs, and parental modeling. As a result, parental participation in childhood weight-loss programs has a positive effect for obese children losing weight. 4. Conclusion Childhood obesity trends have increased dramatically during the past several years, it is important for people to pay attention to the treatments of childhood obesity. There are four main reasons for childhood obesity: Genetic, physical activity, diet and family factors. These factors make children face problems about childhood obesity, and have negative effects on both childhood life and society. As a result, there are four useful and powerful solutions for children weight-loss programs: (1) Diet modification, such as change unhealthy diet behaviors; (2) Physical activity, which suggests children to do more excises; (3) Psychotherapies for managing obesity, which is a way to use the theory of psychology to cure obese children; (4) Parent Participation, which advising involves patents to take part in children weight-loss programs. Through the whole research, we see that childhood obesity is becoming more and more serious in contemporary society. It is necessary for parents, schools a nd the whole society to pay more attention on obese children’s health. At the same time, they also need to help them to face and solve the problems about childhood obesity. References Au, N. (2012). The health care cost implications of overweight and obesity during childhood. Health Service, 47(2), 655-676. doi: 10.111/j.1475-6773.2011.01326.x Ebbeling, C.B., Pawlak, D.B., Ludwig, D.S. (2002). Childhood obesity: public-health crisis, common sense cure. The Lancet, 360(9331), 473-482. Faith, M.S., Kerns J., Diewald, L. (2009). Behavioral treatment of childhood and adolescent obesity. Body image, eating disorders, and obesity in youth: Assessment, prevention, and treatment (pp.281-301). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Staniford, L. J., Breckon, J. D., Copeland, R. J. (2012). Treatment of childhood obesity: A systematic review. Journal Of Child And Family Studies, 21(4), 545-564. doi:10.1007/s10826-011-9507-7 Taylor, V. H., Stonehocker, B., Steele, M., Sharma, A. M. (2012). An overview of treatment for obesity in a population with mental illness. The Canadian Journal Of Psychiatry / La Revue Canadienne De Psychiatrie, 57(1), 13-20. Telford, R. D., Cunningham, R.B., Fitzgerald, R., Olive, L.S., Prosser, L., Jiang, X., Telford, R.M. (2012). Physical education, obesity, and academic achievement: A 2-year longitudinal investigation of Australian elementary school children. American Journal Of Public Health, 102(2), 368-374. Yu, Z. B., Han, S. P., Cao, X. G., Guo, X. R. (2010). Intelligence in relation to obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obesity Reviews, 11(9), 656-670. doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2009.00656.x

Solid Waste Management And Urban Development Environmental Sciences Essay

Solid Waste Management And Urban Development Environmental Sciences Essay Solid waste management is an integral part of the urban environment and planning of infrastructure to ensure a safe and healthy human environment while considering the sustainable economic growth. Waste disposal has posed a problem in most countries and it is affecting the economy and development of the country. How? In an unhealthy environment, the citizen will fall ill, will not attract investors, knowledge and ideas will not be explored and the cost of living will be high but in a healthy environment, investors will always want to be there, healthy manpower to explore, great place to visit (tourism), economy growth and development. The aspect of recycling as referred means of waste disposal than has not been fully adopted by most countries because they have not recognized the positive impact recycling has on the environment. The focus of this research is to look at recycling municipal solid waste as a means to achieve sustainable development and economic growth. This study will be based on an investigative method, surveys, questionnaire, secondary data, interviews and observations. This is to bring out the benefits of recycling waste than disposing waste to landfill. INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND OF STUDY Sustainable development requires an environmental sound, cost effective and socially acceptable management of solid waste product. Waste is the consensus that has to be reduced or avoided and non- avoided waste has to be reuse or recycled as far as possible under well-balanced economic and ecological conditions (NORDTEST 2004). Recycling contributes to a healthy, united community but has not fully been recognized as a way of reducing waste product and creating development. Waste is seen by the society as material perceived to have little or no value. The waste generated are in large quantities, facing disposal problem in such that it has become a nuisance problem. The improper solid waste disposal is as a result of dumping waste along the road side, dumps sites and illegal landfill sites, has led to pollution of the environment and prevention of development in a country forgetting that waste can be recycled. It is seen that a large number of people do not recycle their waste; they pack up all types of waste into one bin. Most of this waste when disposed of separately can be recycled (Bzowy 2007). This in-separation of waste could be as a result of unawareness by the people on the need to recycle, the need to identify the recyclable waste and separate it, and the appropriate bin to dispose it. The amount of waste generated from the different source could be a good source of business after separation and the collection. The possibility of exploring recycling solid waste product has not be taken into full account in the form of sustainable development and revenue generation. In some countries where solid waste disposal is mainly to dump site and landfill, they constitute environmental impact than recycling. In dump site and landfill, the environmental impact is the emission of methane gas contributing to global warming, reduction of available land for development, contamination of land and ground water, breeding ground for rats, flies and other vermin which can be a potential threat to transfer of disease to human and environment. To tackle this issue, legislation was introduced in local and national basis of different countries with the aim of increasing recycling and re-use of solid waste and products for sustainable development. In EU, landfill directives aim is to reduce landfill waste disposal by imposing landfill tax to reduce the amount of biodegradable waste going to landfill to 75% because the decay produce methane, a strong greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change and land is becoming limited making landfills difficult to establish (POST 2005). Most European countries are diverting from landfill waste disposal to recycling. Recycling is seen as an economic development tool as well as environmental tool; it offers direct opportunities for communities. When wastes are recycled, the cost of disposal is reduced because the recycled wastes are sold to manufacturers as raw materials generating revenue. Recycling creates door that attract investors to the country through the remanufacture of the waste, creating jobs and tax revenue. A communitys duty to a cleaner environment often reflects its commitment to a higher standard of living and attracts companies that reprocess recyclables and suppliers who reuse these materials in their product (US EPA 2009). Recycling is a good measure in controlling waste generation, although it is third in the hierarchy of waste management but it is well adopting by any country to control waste generation to build up. Recycling is a very profitable business: which is actually declared: one mans garbage is another mans gold. Recycling of waste whatever its form is a very sound approach to mounting problem therefore encouraging development. This is what I am researching, on the usefulness of waste in the community (country) especially focusing on recycling as a means of sustainable development and revenue generation. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM This study was concern mainly on the development and revenue generation through recycling waste product. Why should waste be recycled? How can sustainable development be achieved through recycling solid waste? Can revenue be generated from recycled waste? How can encouraging the citizens towards recycling waste be achieved and who is responsible? AIMS AND OBJECTIVES The study aims at The justification that recycling municipal solid waste is a means of development and revenue generation. Identifying the recyclable materials, Creating awareness to people on separation of waste and making it know that; Recycling waste can leads to development and revenue generation (employment). To ensure that about 80% of waste are recycled. THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK Recycling solid waste is aimed at discouraging the disposal of waste to landfill, dump site and promote a sustainable environment that will attract investors, create opportunities, create employment, generate income and help in the reduction of greenhouse gas effect to the environment. It is also designed to educate the people on the need for sustainable development. The baseline data collected from the result will serve as a guide of other researches in their quest for additional knowledge. It can also be for those interested in the field of total waste reduction or zero waste emission. SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF STUDY This study is delimited is to recycling of solid waste as a means to sustainable development and revenue generation in different parts of the world but using Coventry as my study area due to availability of quick data. ADVANTAGES OF RECYCLING WASTE Economic Advantages- Reduces cost for waste disposal and raw material purchase. It saves cost on energy. It increases revenue through tax from landfill. It create employment, example collection, sorting Environmental Advantages- Reduces the amount of waste produces. Reduces the amount of waste disposed at landfill It increases storage of carbon in trees. It minimises the risk of present and future environmental pollution and harm human health. It makes good use of waste produced. DISADVANTAGES OF RECYCLING WASTE Economic Disadvantages- It cost more when prices are low for a particular material. Initial capital- Purchasing the equipment. Environmental Disadvantages- Transportation of waste example energy use, noise and emission from vehicle. Disposal of waste, example noise pollution, emissions. DEFINITION OF TERMS WASTE The EC Waste Framework Directive defines waste as any substance or object which the holder discards or intends to discard (Williams 2005). RECYCLING Recycling is the process of collecting used materials which is usually considered as waste and reprocessing it. In this process, the waste are sorted and processed to be used as raw materials for the production of new product (Ghosh 2008). LITERATURE REVIEW RECYCLING SOLID WASTE AS A MEANS TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND REVENUE GENERATION Waste is seen as inefficiency and less inefficiency the more waste. Inefficiency combined with the continuous growth of waste means depleting earths resources and the resources are limited. In order to preserve it for the next generation, they deserve to be used efficiently. Production, consumption and waste disposal patterns in the UK are currently not suitable for sustainable living. The wastes are currently disposed to landfill which produce a large proportion of greenhouse gas and rely on the input of non-renewable resource that could be reused, recycled or recovered for energy. The goal is to create a sustainable environment from waste through recycling and live within our environment without compromising our quality of life (DEFRA 2009). Reduce Re-use Recycle Energy Recovery (Incineration) LandfillIn the hierarchy of waste, recycling is the third for the control of waste. This recycling process involves the creation of employment that leads to development and sustainable income. Figure 1 The hierarchy of waste management. Source: Williams, 2005. The European Waste Framework Directive (1975) has at its centre the hierarchy of waste management and the basis of its strategy, is to encourage movement up the hierarchy and thereby increase the levels of waste reduction, re-use and recycling (Williams 2005). It was clear that there has to be an accurate definition and classification of waste to know the actual type of waste that will be recycled and useful. Recycling is widely assumed to be environmentally beneficial, although collecting, sorting and processing materials does give rise to environmental impacts and energy use (POST 2005). It can take place within the manufacturing industry or can take place at the post- consumer stage, example paper can be collected separately from the waste and then re-enter the paper processing machine (Williams 2005). In 1987 the Commission on Environment and Development issued a report that defined sustainable development as those forms of development that allows people to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability to meet the need of the future generations (Weinberg, Pellow and Schnaiberg 2000:4). Recycling waste product brings about sustainable development and revenue by creating route for collected commodities to be sold in the marketplace. A comprehensive and efficient recycling programs offer more opportunities for the community to benefit financially, while improving the aesthetic appeal of their neighbourhoods through boosting tax revenue- that is used for community projects such as public parks, alternative transportation and educational grants (US EPA 2009). Studies has confirmed that in United State, recycling has emerged as a consensual policy with its promise to reduce landfilled waste, create jobs, produce revenue for cities and profit for business. Example in Florida, the Recycling Economic information Study completed in 2000 shows that about $62 million in state tax revenue was as a result of the direct effect of the recycling and reuse industry (US EPA 2009). It has constituted a model of sustainable community development because it is one of the very few ideas proposed by advocates that embrace all of the three Es- Economy, Equity and Environment (Weinberg, Pellow and Schnaiberg 2000:7). As EPAs Recycling Economic Information Study says recycling industries not only offer higher paying jobs, than national average, but they also prevent communities from disposing beneficial materials into landfills (US EPA 2009). In New York, recycling programme was established involving the trade associations from various packaging industries to promote recycling in all communities. This removed more pressure on local landfills; the market for recyclable increased, remanufacturers started using recyclable and found that it was cheaper than virgin materials. The recycling technology company started developing, employing many people and the industrys revenue increased (Weinberg, Pellow and Schnaiberg 2000:21). Recycling is the need of the hour as many environmental issues is been reeled out. The destruction of the rain forest for the production of paper, has led to the extinction of many species. The rainforest plays an important role in maintaining the ecosystem. This means that we are all interdependent and this necessitates recycling at every step. The plastic industry and paper industry are striving well through recycling and the end product is used to manufacture new product especially plastic which are not biodegradable can be reprocessed into tables and chairs, tooth brush, carpet (Gaikwad 2009). According to a lecture delivered as part of module M51GED, for every one ton of paper recycled, it saves 17 trees, 3 cubic yard of landfill space, 7,000 gallons of water, 4200kWh (enough to heat a home for half of a year), 390 gallons of oil and prevents 30kg of air pollutants (Bateman 2009). Studies have shown that recycling has created job in different areas where people were not employed and has increase their income generation. In 2002, Washington County started recycling with one trailer and one employee but today, the recycling company has growth. The Washington County had collaborated with neighbouring counties leading to the involvement of six counties in recycling and providing opportunities to the rural areas that otherwise would not receive services (US EPA 2009). It has also brings community to together. This was done after the Hurricane Katrina devastation; Harrison County in Mississippi started a road to recovery and identified recycling as a means for rebirth. The EPA aided in setting up of a recycling centre for white goods and other materials to could be salvaged from the disaster. Harrison took further step in improving the county by restoring curb-side recycling and implementing household hazardous waste drive each year to which has now improve the coun ty (US EPA 2009). It is seen that recycling waste is developing some countries, example the solid waste and recycling firm industry in United State is making inroad into Asian nations because these countries are opening their growing consumer market (Weinberg, Pellow and Schnaiberg 2000). The European Community Environmental Action Programmes also call for significant changes in current patterns of development, production, consumption and behaviour in order to achieve sustainable development (Williams 2005). In 2001, the EU made a sixth action programme on sustainable development which waste prevention and management was the key issue and it emphasized the need to achieve a situation where the most of the waste generated are either reintroduced into the economic cycle through recycling or are returned to the environment in a useful (composting) or harmless form (Morrissey and Philips 2007). Recycling does not only affect our environment positively, it has re-created the lost resources, increase wealth, population and technology of various lifestyles. It has also led to unmanageable amount of waste. Recycling has helped in restoring the habitat and forest (Gaikwad 2009). It embodies an ethic, a way of relating to the world, worthy of support. Yet city after city have embraced it and it can be justified that it is a good investment (Seldman and Lease 2002). This can be achieve through The legislation on waste management in which recycling is a major key. The awareness of people towards recycling municipal solid waste especially the households. The provision of the different waste bins at the appropriate place. Organization of seminars, programme, publications, leaflets on waste management and recycling. ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ON RECYCLING SOLID WASTE The European legislation has a strong influence on the national waste policies. Each policy is in line with each countrys legislation on solid waste. Waste Framework Directives- This established the general rule of waste management that was introduced in 1975 (75/442/EEC). This directive was amended in 1991 and 1996 subsequently. The framework directive has central principles: The waste management hierarchy which involves prevention, re-use, recycling and recuperation of energy and materials get priority. Using the Best Available Technology (BAT) for waste disposal using technological, environmental and economic selection criteria. Waste must be treated at the place of production or collection. Applying the polluter Pays Principle to any polluters through waste disposed (Dubois, Gonzalez and Knadel 2004). The European Commission Communication of 12 December 2005 setup Taking sustainable use of resources forward: A Thematic Strategy on the prevention and recycling of waste. To reduce the negative impact of waste on the environment through its life-span from production to disposal through recycling. It made that every item of waste is not only seen as a source of pollution reduction but as a potential resource to be exploited. To promote recycling sector in order to reintroduce waste into the economic cycle in the form of quality products. The strategy also provides for other measures, such as exchange of information on national disposal taxes as well as, measures which would supplement the market should there be inadequate increasing recycling levels (Europa 2007). UNITED KINGDOM LEGISLATION ON WASTE The UK legislation implemented the European Waste Framework Directive through the national legislation: Environmental Protection Act 1990. The Control of Pollution (Amendment) Act 1989 The Waste Management Licensing Regulations 1994 (as amended) The Controlled Waste (Registration of Carriers and Seizure of Vehicles) Regulations 1991. The legislation requires that anyone who treats, keeps, deposits or disposes of waste needs a waste management licence (unless exempt or excluded) which includes conditions relating to operation at the site which is issued by the Environmental Agency and monitors the activities to ensure compliance for the safety of the environment (Net 2004). The legislation set up national waste strategies with a target aim of raising the national recycling rate up to 25% by 2005/06 using the baseline 1998/99 and diverting waste from landfill as required from Landfill Directives and include recycling, recovery and composting of different types of waste especially biodegradable waste for sustainable waste management (Net 2004). The Power of Recycling Waste under the Environmental Protection Act 1990: This deals on the effects for conferring on waste disposal and waste collection authorities power for the purpose of recycling waste. That the waste disposal and collection authorities are to buy or acquire waste with a view of recycling it. To make waste disposal contractors recycle waste (EPA 1990). The Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive 94/62/EC obliges UK to meet the target for recovery and recycling for packaging waste. It was introduced by the UK Government in 1997 to meet 2001 in which most targets agreed by the European Union to be met by 31 December 2008 with overall target was 60% for recovery and 55%-80% for recycling. In November 2005, a new target was set for 2010 with minimum amount of recovery to be achieved through recycling of 92% (Net 2004). The Household Waste Recycling Act was introduced in UK in 2003- that all English authorities to provide kerbside collections for the minimum of two recyclable materials by 2010 (POST 2005). WASTE GENERATION Waste is produce in the course of acquisition of raw materials, refining and manufacturing and product used by consumers. Wastes are produced in large quantities from the different sources that use this manufactured product. Our everyday activities can produce large variety of waste from different sources; it could be solid or liquid waste and this serve as a useful tool for sustainable development if recycled especially municipal waste. In 1990s, it was estimated that each person in the world generated 200kg of solid waste per year and this was forecasted to increase with the growth in population (Manyanhaire 2009:2). From the estimate of Europe waste, 3.5 tonnes is generated per person and this is mainly made up of waste coming from household, commercial activities (Shops, restaurants, hospitals), industry (pharmaceutical companies, clothes manufacturer), agriculture (slurry), construction and demolition projects and mining and quarrying activities and from the generation of energy. With the production of such large quantities of waste produced, it is important to manage it in a way not to cause any harm to either human health or the environment (EIONET 2009). Wastes are produced from different sources and they are classified according to their sources and production. They are- Municipal Waste These wastes are from residential such as household, commercial such as small business, office buildings and institutional such as schools, hospital, government buildings sources that are discarded (Masters 1990). Municipal waste comprises of residue waste, bulky waste, sweeping, litter collections, secondary materials from separate collection and household hazardous waste. The waste is made up of paper, glass, textiles, cardboard, organic waste (food and garden waste) and wood (EIONET 2009). Household waste is about 82% of the total municipal solid waste (Eurostat 2003). Agricultural Waste This consists of organic waste such as manure from livestock, slurry, soiled water and silage effluent, crop residue, plastic, scrap machinery, fencing, pesticides, waste oil and veterinary medicines (EIONET 2009). The waste generators are from crops, orchard, farm, feedlot (Daniel and Thomas 1999). Some are use as animal feed or for compositing (Williams 2005). Industrial Waste This consists of different manufacturing industries- Light and heavy manufacturing, fabrication, power and chemical plant. This waste is made up of food, cardboard, beverages and tobacco, hazardous waste (chemical), metals, wood and paper. It is similar to that of municipal waste (US EPA 2009). Construction and Demolition Waste This involves waste from residue during construction and waste when demolition takes place. The waste generators are construction of new buildings, renovation of site and total or partial demolition. The wastes consist of wood, steel, dirt (Daniel and Thomas 1999). Mining and Quarry Waste This waste is produced during extraction and processing materials such as coal, slate and metalliferous materials. Wastes are also found in rocks in-bedded with mineral resources and residue leftovers. (Wasteonline 2002). METHODOLOGY The study will make use of an investigative method as its aim to find out the rate of recycling and what material is recycled more. Data will be collected at some recycling centres. The research will include surveys from the process of collecting solid waste and recycling waste, the concern, belief and behaviour of people towards recycling waste. To answer the research questions, Data will be gathered from areas where waste recycling studied area of this research (which includes areas where waste recycling and non-recycling are been carried out). Participant observation will be carried out. Questionnaire will be distributed to the residents to know the rate of waste recycling and how actively involved they are in the exercise. Interviews will also be conducted (face to face). Secondary data will be used for this research and it will be on- Documentary sources such as journals, newspapers, organisation records, books, images. Survey Sources such as census, government surveys, official statistics and document. Multiple sources that are combined into one dataset. Data generated for this study will be compared with data from pervious study. Appropriate tables, charts and figures will be used in effective representation of analysis of all data along with narrative interviews data obtained. The data collected will be converted to numerical data for analysis and discussion. RESEARCH TIMETABLE Activity March April May June July August Confirm Proposal XXXXXXXX Research Activities XXXXXX XXXXXX Analyse findings and informal write up XXXX XXXXXXX Write Up XXX XXXXXXXX XXXX Complete Write up XXXXXXXX Draft and Update XXXXXXXX Deadline and submission XXXXXXXX